University astronomy long used an Earth-centered model with deferents and epicycles to calculate planetary motion. Which system was this?

A 1543 model treated Earth as one planet among others moving around the Sun. Which system did this describe?

Copernicus kept planets moving in perfect circles, but later calculations from Mars data replaced those circles with ellipses. Which system made that change?

One compromise model kept Earth still while the Sun and Moon circled Earth and the other planets circled the Sun. Which model was that?

Which astronomer first argued in print that planets only seem to loop backward in the sky because Earth itself moves around the Sun?

Who published a law in 1619 linking each planet's orbital period to its average distance from the Sun?

In January 1610, who observed small bodies moving around Jupiter and concluded that they were moons?

Which anatomist used direct human dissection to correct many teachings inherited from Galen?

Which physician argued that the heart pumps blood through a circuit of arteries and veins?

Which natural philosopher is associated with the pressure-volume relationship of gases known as a law named for him?

Which Dutch astronomer explained Saturn's changing 'handles' as a thin ring around the planet?

Who reported tiny living organisms seen through single-lens microscopes in letters to the Royal Society?

A 1572 new star and the comet of 1577 showed no nearby parallax, suggesting change above the Moon. Whose measurements supported that conclusion?

Critics asked why, if Earth circles the Sun, the stars show no yearly shift in position. What did Copernicus's De revolutionibus of 1543 claim in reply?

What did Galileo's Sidereus Nuncius of 1610 announce?

What was the main importance of Vesalius's De humani corporis fabrica, first published in 1543?

Harvey's De Motu Cordis (1628) could not show how blood passes from arteries into veins. Who later used a microscope to see the tiny connecting vessels?

What did Newton's Principia of 1687 use mathematics to explain?

In Novum Organum, Francis Bacon criticized relying only on old syllogisms. What method did he urge instead?

René Descartes began by doubting what could be doubted. What did he treat as the first secure starting point?

An inclined-plane demonstration of Galileo's law spaces bells farther apart for equal time intervals. What conclusion does that support?

Harvey estimated how much blood the heart pumps and studied one-way valves in veins. What conclusion did this evidence support?

Boyle compared what happened inside an evacuated receiver with normal air outside it. What did that experimental design help show?

Galileo's telescope revealed four bodies moving around Jupiter. Why did this matter for the old Earth-centered picture?

In Micrographia, Robert Hooke used a microscope on cork. What name did he give the tiny boxlike structures he saw?

Torricelli inverted a mercury-filled tube in a dish of mercury. What did the instrument reveal?

In 1616, the Congregation of the Index acted against Copernican teaching. What happened to De revolutionibus?

After Galileo's 1633 condemnation and abjuration, what restriction shaped the rest of his life?

Galileo named Jupiter's newly observed moons the Medicean Stars. What did this show about scientific work in his time?

The Royal Society's motto, often rendered 'take nobody's word for it,' points to what institutional response to new science?