A state scholarship law pays students of one race but denies identical aid to students of another race. A resident challenges unequal state treatment. What provision is the main basis?

Congress governs public schools in Washington, D.C. Why could Black students there not rely directly on the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause to challenge segregation?

A state university assigns dormitory floors by race and claims the rooms are equally good. A student sues under equal protection. What level of review does the court apply to this racial classification?

A privately owned motel serving interstate travelers refuses rooms based on race; Congress applies the Civil Rights Act of 1964. What constitutional power supports that federal rule?

A state law issues driver's licenses to qualified adults of one race but not another. Which constitutional text does a challenge to this law rely on?

In Plessy v. Ferguson, the Court reviewed Louisiana's law requiring separate railroad cars for Black and white passengers. What did the Court hold in 1896?

In Sweatt v. Painter, Texas denied a Black applicant entry to its main public law school and offered a separate school with fewer resources and contacts. What did the Court decide?

Brown v. Board I involved state laws separating public schoolchildren by race, even where buildings and teacher salaries were similar. What did the Court decide in 1954?

In Bolling v. Sharpe, Black students challenged segregation in Washington, D.C. public schools, where the Fourteenth Amendment did not directly apply. What did the Court decide?

After Brown I, the Court in Brown II considered remedies for desegregating public schools. What did it order in 1955?

In Loving v. Virginia, a state banned interracial marriage and argued that both spouses were punished equally. What did the Court decide?

In Regents v. Bakke, a state medical school reserved 16 of 100 seats for certain minority applicants. What did the Court decide in 1978?

In Brown I, the Court said separating schoolchildren by race harmed them even when schools were equal. What harm did the Court describe?

In Sweatt v. Painter, the Court compared Texas's two law schools. Besides buildings and books, what else did it say counts when judging whether they are equal?

In Bolling v. Sharpe, the Court said it would be "unthinkable" for the Constitution to do what?

In Loving v. Virginia, the Court called the freedom to marry one of the vital personal rights. Which clause was that part of the ruling based on?

Bakke allowed colleges to weigh race as one admissions factor. In 2023, what did the Court rule in Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard?

Brown II told districts to desegregate "with all deliberate speed." What effect did that phrase have in many Southern districts?

A state school integrates classrooms but requires Black and white students to use separate cafeterias and school entrances. How does Brown's rule apply?

In 1957, Arkansas's governor used the state National Guard to block the Little Rock Nine from Central High. What did President Eisenhower do next?

The Little Rock crisis showed a state official resisting a federal court desegregation order. What constitutional principle did the federal response reinforce?

Ten years after Brown I, Congress enacted a major civil-rights law that addressed public accommodations, school integration, and employment discrimination. What law was it?

A public school district takes federal education money but excludes students from a program because of race, color, or national origin. What tool did the 1964 Civil Rights Act add?

After a court finds intentional school segregation, the remedy pairs noncontiguous attendance zones and buses students. What did Swann approve about this kind of remedy?

After the civil-rights era widened beyond race, a federally funded school bars girls from a class because of sex. What federal law directly targets that education discrimination?